In this article we will explore the fascinating world of Kainantu–Goroka languages, a topic that has captured the attention of experts and enthusiasts alike. Whether we are talking about the life of a historical figure, an in-depth analysis of a current topic, or a milestone event in history, Kainantu–Goroka languages has been the subject of debate, study, and admiration over time. In the following lines we will delve into all aspects related to Kainantu–Goroka languages, from its origins to its impact on today's society, offering a complete and enriching vision for our readers.
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Kainantu–Goroka | |
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East Highlands | |
Geographic distribution | highlands of Kainantu and Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea |
Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea
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Subdivisions | |
Glottolog | kain1273 |
Map: The Kainantu–Goroka languages of New Guinea
The Kainantu–Goroka languages
Other Trans–New Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Uninhabited |
The Kainantu–Goroka languages are a family of Papuan languages established by Arthur Capell in 1948 under the name East Highlands. They formed the core of Stephen Wurm's 1960 East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor of Trans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification of Malcolm Ross.
The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and both William A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:
The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:
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The possessive forms are:
sg | pl | |
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1 | *na-i | *ta-i |
2 | *ka | *tana-i |
3 | *a, *wa | *ya-i, *yana-i |
Kainantu–Goroka reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:
Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacing proto-Trans-New Guinea forms:
Gorokan basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
gloss | Proto-Gorokan | Gende | Siane | Benabena | Kamono–Yagaria | Fore |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
'two' | *tote | ogondrari | lele | loe | lole | tara |
'man' | *we | vei | we | vo | ve | wa |
'water' | *no(k) | nogoi | no | nagami | ni(na) | wani |
'fire' | tuva | yo | logo | hali | yakuʔ | |
'tree' | *ya | izo | ya | yafa | yava | yaː |
'leaf' | kuruma | aila | haya(ʔa) | haeya | aʔyeʔ | |
'root' | *supa | tovaya | lufawa | lufusa(ʔa) | havu | aubu |
'house' | *nom | nomu | numu(na) | no(hi) | yo(na) | naːmaʔ |
'breast' | *ami | ami- | ami(na) | amiha(ʔa) | ami(maʔa) | nono |
'tooth' | *wa | va(iza) | auma | yogo(ʔa) | (ä)vep | (a)wa |
'bone' | *yampu | yami- | auma | felisa(ʔa) | (a)pu(va) | (a)yaːmpu |
'ear' | *ke/a | ka- | ka(la) | (e)kesa(ʔa) | (ä)geta | (a)ge |
'hair' | *yoka | yogo | yowa(la) | oka(ʔa) | (a)yokaʔ | (a)yaːʔ |
'leg' | *kia | kia- | kiya(na) | gigusa(ʔa) | (a)gia | (a)gisaː |
'blood' | *kota | mamia- | wanu | golaha(ʔa) | gola(na) | koraːʔ |
'hand' | *ya | ya | a(na) | yaha(ʔa) | (ä)ya | ya |
'egg' | *mut | mura | mula | mu(ʔa) | mu(na) | amuʔ |
'sun' | *po | po | fo | yafi | yafo | yaːbu |
'axe' | *tu | tu | luna | lu | lu | tuʔ |
'netbag' | *ko | ko | owo | gu(ʔi) | gu(na) | koʔ |
'eat' | *na- | na- | n- | na- | no- | na- |
'die' | *puti- | pri- | fol- | fili- | fili- | puri- |
'say' | *si- | ti- | l- | li- | hi- | i- |
'give' | *mi- | imi- | om- | m- | mi- | mi- |
'big' | *(n)ampa | namba | namba | napa | legepa | tabe |
Kainantu basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
gloss | Awa | Auyana | Gadsup | Tairora |
---|---|---|---|---|
'two' | tɔtare | kaiʔa | kaantani | taaraʔanta |
'man' | wɛ | waiya | banta | bainti |
'water' | no | nomba | nomi | namari |
'fire' | ira | irama | ikai | iha |
'tree' | ta | taima | yaani | katari |
'leaf' | ɔnɔ | anama | anai | mare |
'root' | anuʔ | anuʔa | anuʔi | tuʔa |
'house' | nɔ | naamba | maʔi | naabu |
'breast' | nɔ | naamba | naami | naama |
'tooth' | awɛ | awaiyamba | abakuni | aabai |
'bone' | ayɔnta | ayaantamba | ayampai | buhaarima |
'ear' | ɔre | aʔa | aakami | aato |
'hair' | (a)yɔra | aayara | -nyoi | kauhi |
'leg' | ai | aisamima | akani | aiʔu |
'blood' | nɛe | naema | naarei | naare |
'hand' | ayɔnobeh | ayamba | aayaami | kauʔu |
'egg' | au | auma | amuʔi | auru |
'sun' | popoʔnah | aabauma | ikona | kauri |
'axe' | konaro | koraroba | kuntaʔi | kaarima |
'netbag' | unɔ | unaamba | unaami | uta |
'eat' | nɔno | nare | naano | naana |
'die' | pukire | pukai | pukono | ʔutubiro |
'say' | iraruwo | siyo | seʔu | tiena |
'give' | awiʔ | ami | ameno | amina |
'big' | aanotɔ | anomba | inoʔna | nora |
Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:
gloss | Proto-East Kainantu | Proto-North Kainantu |
---|---|---|
head | *piᵄtɐ | *noːN |
hair/feather | *jɐᵘsi | *jɐᵘ |
ear | *ɑːtoː | *ɑːʔ |
eye | *wu | *u |
nose | *ipi | *siʔ |
tooth | *wɐⁱ | *wɐj |
tongue | *m₂ɑːpiɾi | *piɾ |
leg | *ipu | *tɐɾ |
blood | *wiipɐ | *nɑːɾeː |
bone | *muʔjɑːni | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ |
breast | *nɑːNmɐ | *nɑːN |
louse | *numɐ | *nuN |
dog | *w₂ɐⁱni | *ijɐN |
pig | *p₂uᵄɾɐ | *poːɾ |
bird | *inɑːmɐ; *uwini | *nuN |
egg | *uɾu | *uɾ |
tree | *jɐtɐɾi | *jɑːj |
sun | *j₂uᵄni | *ɑːʔ |
moon | *toːnɐ | *wioːN |
water | *noːni | *noːN |
fire | *iʔjɐ | *itɐ |
stone | *oːni | *oː |
path | *ɑːni | *ɑːj |
man | *wɐⁱ-iNti | *wɑːⁱNsɐ |
woman | *ɐnɑːjeː | *ɐnɑːsi |
name | *utu | *wiʔ |
eat | *nɐ- | |
one | *moːʔjɑː | *mɐnɑː |
two | *tɑːɾɐ | *tɑːN |