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The United Kingdom was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the so-called "Pax Britannica"—a period of unrivaled supremacy and unprecedented international peace during the mid-to-late 1800s. The country continued to be widely considered a superpower until the Suez crisis of 1956 and the dismantling of the British Empire left the UK's dominant role in global affairs to be gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a founding member of the G7, G20, NATO, AUKUS, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, the latter being a legacy of the British Empire. The UK had been a member state of the European Union (and a member of its predecessors) since 1973. However, due to the outcome of a 2016 membership referendum, proceedings to withdraw from the EU began in 2017 and concluded when the UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, and the transition period on 31 December 2020 with an EU trade agreement. Since the vote and the conclusion of trade talks with the EU, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners.
Following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain (which united England and Scotland) in 1707, British foreign relations largely continued those of the Kingdom of England. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This policy remained a major justification for Britain's wars against Napoleon, and for British involvement in the First and Second World Wars. Secondly Britain continued the expansion of its colonial "First British Empire" by migration and investment.
France was the chief enemy until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. It had a much larger population and a more powerful army, but a weaker navy. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception, the American War of Independence (1775–1783), saw Britain, without any major allies, defeated by the American colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and (indirectly) Spain. A favoured British diplomatic strategy involved subsidising the armies of continental allies (such as Prussia), thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat, eventually with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation and maintaining of the British Empire, which was achieved through the support of a navy larger than the next two largest navies combined, prior to 1920. The British generally stood alone until the early 20th century, when it became friendly with the U.S. and made alliances with Japan, France and Russia and Germany former antagonist now ally.
The 100 years were generally peaceful--a sort of Pax Britannica enforced by the Royal Navy. There were two important wars, both limited in scope. The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the defeat of Russia and its threat to the Ottoman Empire. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) saw the defeat of the two Boer republics in South Africa and Boxer Rebellion happen the same year. London became the world's financial centre, and commercial enterprise expanded across the globe. The "Second British Empire" was built with a base in Asia (especially India) and Africa.
After 1918 Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority. The main themes of British foreign policy included a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge on Germany. He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany further, as in the Locarno Treaties of 1925. Furthermore, Britain obtained "mandates" that allowed it and its dominions to govern most of the former German and Ottoman colonies.
Britain became an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.
Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament agreements had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.
Britain was partially successful in negotiating better terms with United States regarding the large war loans which Britain was obliged to repay. Britain supported the international solution to German reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. After the Dawes Plan had helped stabilize Germany's currency and lowered its annual payments, Germany was able to pay its annual reparations using money borrowed from New York banks, and Britain used the money received to pay Washington. The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain revived Imperial Preference, which meant low tariffs within the British Empire and higher barriers to trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.
In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. Labour stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of countries. Nevertheless, party leaderRamsay MacDonald devoted much of his attention to European policies.
Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the First World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators (notably of Mussolini and of Hitler) in order to avoid their threats of war.
The challenge came from those dictators, first from Benito Mussolini, Duce of Italy, then from Adolf Hitler, Führer of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it failed to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy involved "appeasing" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of September 1938. Instead of satiation, Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland (31 March 1939). Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe (23 August 1939); when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.
Having signed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in August 1939, Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 in response to Germany's invasion of Poland. This declaration included the Crown colonies and India, which Britain directly controlled. The dominions were independent in foreign policy, though all quickly entered the war against Germany. After the French defeat in June 1940, Britain and its empire stood alone in combat against Germany, until June 1941. The United States gave diplomatic, financial and material support, starting in 1940, especially through Lend Lease, which began in 1941 and attain full strength during 1943. In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and agreed on the Atlantic Charter, which proclaimed "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous and would be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.
Starting in December 1941, Japan overran British possessions in Asia, including Hong Kong, Malaya, and especially the key base at Singapore. Japan then marched into Burma, headed toward India. Churchill's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the rapid defeats irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power. The realisation that Britain could not defend them pushed Australia and New Zealand into permanent close ties with the United States.
Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and dealing with widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO in 1949.
The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies. The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997. Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.
Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which became the European Union in 1993. However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the EU financial crisis of 2011. In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU.
Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade. The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".
Lunn et al. (2008) argue:
Three key motifs of Tony Blair's 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain's role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.
The GREAT campaign of 2012 was one of the most ambitious national promotion efforts ever undertaken by any major nation. It was scheduled take maximum advantage of the worldwide attention to the Summer Olympics in London. The goals were to make British more culture visible in order to stimulate trade, investment and tourism. The government partnered with key leaders in culture, business, diplomacy and education. The campaign unified many themes and targets, including business meetings; scholarly conventions; recreational vehicle dealers; parks and campgrounds; convention and visitors bureaus; hotels; bed and breakfast inns; casinos; and hotels.
In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:
For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.
The UK began establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Oman in 2014–15. The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government. Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez. By some measures, Britain remains the second most powerful country in the world by virtue of its soft power and "logistical capability to deploy, support and sustain forces overseas in large numbers." Although commentators have questioned the need for global power projection, the concept of “Global Britain” put forward by the Conservative government in 2019 signalled more military activity in the Middle East and Pacific, outside of NATO's traditional sphere of influence.
At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, with a subsequent trade agreement with the EU in effect from 1 January 2021, setting out the terms of the UK-EU economic relationship and what abilities the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office can use in foreign relations related to trade.
In July 2023, UK and Bahrain signed a memorandum of understanding for strategic investments and collaborations, through Bahraini sovereign wealth fund Mumtalakat, Investcorp, GFH Financial Group, and Osool Asset Management, that would see the Gulf state's private sector invest 1 billion pounds ($1.3 billion) in Britain.
Dispute with Libya after a policewoman is shot dead in London by a gunman from within the Libyan embassy, and considerable Libyan support for the IRA in Northern Ireland.
1988
Dispute with Libya over the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie
Under UN mandate, military involvement in former Yugoslavia (specifically Bosnia)
1997
Hong Kong handover to Chinese rule. Britain secures guarantees for a "special status" that would continue capitalism and protect existing British property.
UN and EU implement a deal with Iran intended to prevent the country gaining access to nuclear weapons
2018
ongoing
Sanctions on Russia following the poisoning of Sergei Skripal using a nerve agent in Salisbury, England included the expulsions of 23 diplomats, the largest ever since the Cold War, an act that was retaliated by Russia
The UK seized an Iranian oil tanker in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf.
British diplomatic relations date back to the 13th century. The United Kingdom has established diplomatic relations with all United Nations members, aside from Bhutan, in addition to 3 Non-UN states: the Cook Islands, Holy See, and Kosovo. The following table lists the date from which diplomatic relations were established with foreign countries:
List of diplomatic relations and dates established
The United Kingdom is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Addis Ababa.
The UK administered Ethiopia from 1941–1942. The UK continued to administered the regions of Ogaden and Haud from 1941, until both territories were relinquished to Ethiopia in 1948 and 1955 respectively.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Somalia through its embassy in Mogadishu.
The UK governed Somaliland from 1884–1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The UK also administered the remaining territory of modern Somalia from 1941–1950, until it became an Italian Trust Territory. Both of these territories unified on the 1 July 1960 to become Somalia.
The United Kingdom does not have a diplomatic mission in Somaliland.
On 4 July 2023, Gavin Williamson proposed a bill to the UK Parliament that would invoke the UK to recognise the Republic of Somaliland.
The UK governed Somaliland from 1884–1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The Republic of Somaliland declared independence from Somalia on 18 May 1991.
The United Kingdom was accredited to Afghanistan through its embassy in Kabul. Following the fall of Kabul to Taliban forces in August 2021, the embassy has been operating from Doha, Qatar.
In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British rule less than 100 years later in 1984.
The UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei's oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006–07.
The United Kingdom has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Cyprus maintains a high commission in London, and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Dunblane, Glasgow, and Leeds.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Cyprus through its high commission in Nicosia.
The UK governed Cyprus from 1878 until 1960, when it achieved full independence.
The UK is a "guarantor power" of Cyprus's independence. The UK maintains the two sovereign base areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consul in Eilat.Israel has an embassy and a consulate in London. The UK's closest partner in the Middle East is Israel, and Israel's closest partner in Europe is the UK.
Contact began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, Miura Anjin) on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture. During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations. but with the impact of Industrial Revolution, British thread company launched its business in 1907 and thrived. The treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day.
The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992 and Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996. Kazakhstan's relations with the West have greatly improved in the last few years as the Government has closely cooperated in the United States-led War on Terror. See also Counter-terrorism in Kazakhstan
Britain is the third-largest foreign investor in Kazakhstan with British companies making up 14 per cent of foreign direct investment. Over 100 British companies do business in Kazakhstan.
Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal as a result of historical ties, development assistance and long-term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal.
Pakistan maintains a high commission in London, as well as consulates in Birmingham, Bradford, Glasgow, and Manchester.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Pakistan through its high commission in Islamabad, as well as a deputy high commission in Karachi.
The UK governed Pakistan from 1824 to 1947, as part of the British Raj which also included modern day India and Bangladesh, until it achieved full independence.
The United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Jerusalem which handles British relations with the Palestinian Authority. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office states the "Consular district covers Jerusalem (West and East), the West Bank and Gaza. As well as work on the Middle East Peace Process and other political issues, the consulate also promotes trade between the UK and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and manages an extensive programme of aid and development work. The latter is undertaken primarily by the DFID office in Jerusalem.".
The Palestinian Authority is represented in London by Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian General Delegate to the United Kingdom.
Singapore and the United Kingdom share a friendly relationship since Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1959. Singapore retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal up till 1989 (fully abolished in 1994) due to political reasons.
Formal relations between South Korea and the United Kingdom commenced on the 18 January 1949 although diplomatic ties go back to 1883. British military participation in the Korean War during the 1950s was significant, but relations between the two countries at the time were described as "tenuous", with relatively little known about each other. Commercial and trade relationships grew rapidly during the 1970s. During the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s, the Queen made a state visit to South Korea which was well received at a time of crisis in the country. Today, there are strong economic and diplomatic links between the two countries. The United Kingdom has a visa scheme through which young South Koreans can live and work in the UK for two years. There is a British embassy in Seoul and a South Korean embassy in London.
In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror. Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people.
Turkey has an embassy and a consulate general in London.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Ankara, a consulate general in Istanbul, a vice consulate in Antalya and a consulate in Izmir. The United Kingdom has honorary consulates in Adana, Bodrum, Fethiye and Marmaris.
The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8 per cent of its total goods to the United Kingdom. Around 1,000,000 Britons take holidays in Turkey every year, while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure.
The United Kingdom does not recognise the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.
Both countries are members of NATO.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Greece through its embassy in Athens and a Honorary Vice Consulate in Patras. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Crete, Corfu, Rhodes, Thessaloniki, and Zakynthos.
With the English Reformation, diplomatic links between London and the Holy See, which had been established in 1479, were interrupted in 1536 and again, after a brief restoration in 1553, in 1558. Formal diplomatic ties between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were restored in 1914 and raised to ambassadorial level in 1982.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Ireland through its an embassy in Dublin.
The UK governed parts of Ireland from the 12th century until 1800, when it was incorporated into the United Kingdom. The Republic of Ireland achieved full independence on the 6 December 1922.
When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to officially announce recognition of sovereign Kosovo on 18 February 2008. The United Kingdom has had an embassy in Pristina since 5 March 2008. Kosovo has an embassy in London since 1 October 2008.
The Netherlands has an embassy in London and consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Guernsey, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester, Plymouth and Southampton. The Netherlands also has a vice consulate in Dover.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in The Hague and consulates in Amsterdam and Willemstad.
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact, and NATO.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Portugal through its embassy in Lisbon and consulates in Lisbon and Portimão. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Funchal, Ponta Delgada, and Porto.
Romania maintains an embassy London, and consulate generals in Edinburgh and Manchester. Romania also maintains honorary consulates in Hirwaun, Leeds, Morpeth-Newcastle and Southampton.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Romania through its embassy in Bucharest.
Russia has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Moscow and consulate generals in Ekaterinburg and Saint Petersburg.
Spanning nearly five centuries, the relationship has often switched from a state of alliance to rivalry. Both countries were allies during World War I and II. During the Cold War, both countries participated in intense espionage activity against each other. In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained again, and since 2014 have grown more unfriendly due to the Russo-Ukrainian War and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the Western world. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.
Sweden has an embassy in London as well as consulates general in Edinburgh and Gibraltar. Sweden also has consulates in Guernsey and Jersey as well as honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Brighton, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Glasgow, Immingham, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Southampton and Stornonway.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Stockholm and honorary consulates in Gothenburg and Malmö.
The UK established diplomatic relations with Honduras on 16 June 1849, when Frederick Chatfield was appointed Charge d'Affaires despite being based in Guatemala.
The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to recognise Mexico's Independence. The relationship between the two nations began after the Pastry War when the United Kingdom aided Mexico against France. Also, relations improved when Mexico joined the British alongside the Allies to fight the Japanese forces in the Pacific War.
Mexico has an embassy in London.
United Kingdom has an embassy in Mexico City, a consulate-general in Cancún and a consulate in Monterrey.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Australia through its high commission in Canberra, the UK also maintains consulate generals in Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney, additionally the UK maintains a consulate in Perth.
The UK governed Australia from the late 18th century until 1942, when Australia achieved full independence.
Nauru was part of the British Western Pacific Territories from September 1914 and June 1921. The British Government had ceased to exercise any direct role in the governance of Nauru by 1968, when the island achieved its independence. The Nauruan government maintains an Hon. Consul, Martin W I Weston. The British High Commission in Suva is responsible for the United Kingdom's bilateral relations with Nauru.
Papua New Guinea and the United Kingdom share Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. They have had relations since 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia.
The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Tonga established formal mutual diplomatic recognition in 1879. Tonga was then a British protectorate from 1900 to 1970, whereupon diplomatic relations resumed at the level of sovereign states.
Formerly known as British Guiana (until 1966), it became the U.K.'s largest Commonwealth realm in South America upon the nation's independence the same year. In 1970, the nation transitioned to republic status through newly laid constitution and today both nations continue relations chiefly through the Commonwealth of Nations. Guyana is roughly the same physical size as the U.K. Due to proximity, Guyana predominately associates and identifies culturally with the close by Commonwealth Caribbean area and takes part in the West Indies Cricket Team as national sport. Ninety per cent of the nation's population of 800 thousand persons live on ten per cent of the nation's mostly coastal area while the nations' interior consists mostly of Amerindians and native rainforests.
Guyana has a high commission in London.
United Kingdom has a high commission in Georgetown.
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 4 March 1853, with the signing of a treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation. A dominant view in Paraguay and significant in all the Southern Cone is that the interests of the British Empire played a considerable role during the Paraguayan War.
The United Kingdom is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and an honorary consulate in Asunción.
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